Jonathan A Newman

Communities and ecosystems are two related and contested concepts in ecology. Despite their longevity, three unanswered philosophical questions apply to both concepts. First, "what are they?" Both concepts have multiple definitions and little agreement among ecologists about which is correct or which is most useful. Second, "how are they individuated?" Working from any particular definition, how can ecologists delineate the boundaries of the entity described in the definition? And third, "what is their ontological status?" Are the communities and ecosystems that we define and delineate real objects that exist mind- independently, or are they merely "useful fictions?" Despite the fact that these questions are unanswered, ecologists have been able to make a good deal of progress in the study of these concepts. Nevertheless, answers to these questions would be useful for many applied questions in management and conservation.