Feeding Ecology and Conservation of the Mediterranean Monk Seal, (Monachus monachus)

Ines Moreira Santos, Rebecca LST Netels, Ashlie J. McIvor, Paula Campos

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is one of the world’s most endangered pinnipeds, persisting as a small number of fragmented populations exposed to continuing anthropogenic pressure. Understanding its feeding ecology is therefore important not only for clarifying its trophic role and habitat use, but also for informing conservation actions related to fisheries overlap, prey availability, and habitat protection. This review synthesises the available literature on the diet of the Mediterranean monk seal in order to consolidate current knowledge, assess the strength of the evidence base, and identify priorities for future research. The available evidence supports that the species has a broad but unevenly documented diet dominated by bony fishes and cephalopods, with less frequent records of crustaceans, cartilaginous fishes, and occasional atypical prey such as marine turtles. Reported prey span a range of coastal, demersal, benthic, and reef-associated taxa, supporting the view that the Mediterranean monk seal is a flexible coastal predator whose diet likely reflects local prey availability and habitat conditions. At the same time, dietary variation across life stage and region remains poorly resolved. Most current knowledge derives from stomach contents of stranded or deceased individuals, supplemented by direct observations and a small number of indirect approaches. Although these studies provide important baseline information, the evidence base remains geographically uneven and methodologically constrained. Improved understanding of monk seal feeding ecology will require broader geographic coverage and the application of more consistent, non-lethal, and complementary methods. Such advances will strengthen interpretation of foraging ecology and provide a more robust basis for conservation planning and population recovery across the species’ fragmented range.