Wolf – human interactions in a shared landscape: spatio-temporal distribution and visitors' perception in The Hoge Veluwe National Park

Giulia Zambotto , Roberta Chirichella, Patrick Jansen, Laurens Dijkhuis, Jakob Leidekker, Marco Apollonio, Yorick Liefting

Large carnivores are increasingly recolonizing human-dominated landscapes, yet the mechanisms enabling their persistence in intensively used landscapes and how this shapes risk perception and tolerance remain insufficiently understood. In particular, few studies have integrated fine-scale ecological data with on-site assessments of visitor perceptions from the same recreational area. Using the Hoge Veluwe National Park as a case study, we combined camera-trap monitoring with a visitor survey to examine wolf (Canis lupus) spatio-temporal behavior, human–wolf overlap, and recreationists’ attitudes toward wolf presence in a highly frequented recreational landscape. Analysis on the activity patterns at trail crossings showed temporal segregation (overlap coefficient = 0-0.31), with wolves primarily nocturnal and visitor activity peaking at midday. In contrast, and contrary to expectations, camera-trap data revealed a constant spatial distribution of wolf capture rates in forest and open habitats away from trails, with a frequent use of the latter during daylight hours. These findings suggest that wolves rely on behavioral flexibility, making spatial and temporal adjustments according to predictable patterns of human disturbance in order to persist in highly used recreational landscapes. The availability of spatial refuges and nocturnal windows of minimal human activity likely facilitates this coexistence dynamic. Survey responses indicated generally neutral-to-positive attitudes toward wolves in our sample with broad support for coexistence and limited evidence that wolf presence would reduce future visitation even though some expressed concerns regarding public safety and reduced ungulate visibility. Together, the ecological and social findings point to a system characterized by structured human mobility, limited encounter risk, and pragmatic tolerance.